Martial law troops prepare to break into the main hall of the National Assembly in Seoul in the early hours of Dec. 4, 2024, hours after President Yoon Suk Yeol's declaration of martial law. Yonhap

Ryu Hyuk, former inspector general of the Ministry of Justice, was having what he described as an "exceedingly tranquil day" on the evening of Dec. 3, 2024.

After having dinner with his eldest child, he went to bed at around 10 p.m. But just 27 minutes later, his child woke him up to announce that President Yoon Suk Yeol had declared martial law.

"Martial law? In this day and age?" Ryu thought.

He could hardly believe what he was seeing as he turned on the TV and checked the news online. A few minutes later, he was driving to attend an emergency meeting at the justice ministry.

During the half-hour drive to the Government Complex Gwacheon, Ryu couldn't stop thinking about what was unfolding. When he arrived and Justice Minister Park Sung-jae confirmed that the meeting was about the martial law declaration, Ryu immediately walked out of the room.

"In following an order born from illegal martial law, I would be no different from a guard at Auschwitz's gas chamber, to give an extreme example," he said in a recent interview with local media. "I just didn't think it was right for me to be there at that meeting."

The following morning, he tendered his resignation.

This act of defiance mirrors the findings of Emily Caspar's book, "Just Following Orders." Caspar, who draws on the Milgram experiment and cognitive neuroscience, explores the psychological mechanisms that drive obedience, even when it demands harming others. Her research highlights how the brain's guilt response diminishes when individuals act under orders, particularly those in intermediary positions.

Military officials raise their hands during a special committee meeting at the National Assembly in Seoul, Jan. 14, prior to questioning about their role in President Yoon Suk Yeol's Dec. 3 imposition of martial law. Yonhap

Yoon's martial law declaration has led to months of political chaos and an ongoing leadership vacuum. In the aftermath, several high-ranking military and police officials have been arrested. Many of them said that they were simply "following orders" from their superiors, including figures like Yeo In-hyung, former chief of the Defense Counterintelligence Command.

But others chose to defy orders from higher up they deemed immoral and unlawful.

Some soldiers from a key investigative unit of the martial law forces refused to enter the National Election Commission (NEC). Instead, they showed passive resistance, opting to eat instant noodles at a nearby convenience store despite pressure to comply. The soldiers had been ordered to enter the NEC to secure the main server containing election information, a move they believed to be illegal.

Caspar's work emphasizes the importance of understanding the psychological drivers of obedience to break the cycle of violence. By fostering empathy and moral courage, both individually and within organizational structures, people can create a society where individuals are empowered to question and resist unjust orders, according to Caspar, who teaches at Ghent University in Belgium.

The events in Korea serve as a poignant reminder that true leadership demands moral responsibility and the courage to defy unlawful authority, even in the face of immense pressure.

Disobedience to authority

In the book, Caspar sheds light on what goes on inside the human brain when obeying terrible commands.

The cover of "Just Following Orders," authored by Emilie Caspar / Courtesy of Dongasia Books

Caspar revisits the Milgram experiment and combines it with cognitive neuroscience to examine what happens inside the minds of perpetrators when they obey orders that harm others.

The 1961 study by American psychologist Stanley Milgram showed that ordinary people can do terrible things when ordered by an authority, even if it goes against their conscience.

According to Caspar's research, the brain activity associated with guilt diminishes when people carry out harmful actions under orders from others. Interestingly, those in mid-level positions of authority tend to be the least repulsed by cruel actions, such as violence or slaughter.

A case in point is Yeo, the former chief of the Defense Counterintelligence Command, who orchestrated operations to deploy military and police forces to the National Assembly and the National Election Commission.

Evidence suggests that he was involved in issuing orders for the immediate arrests of National Assembly Speaker Woo Won-shik and key political leaders as the legislative body was preparing to vote on lifting martial law.

Around 685 martial law troops stormed the National Assembly that night, attempting to break into the main hall. They smashed windows and used physical force in an attempt to gain entry.

"Regardless of whether it is right or wrong, I believe soldiers should follow orders in times of crisis," Yeo told an inquiry panel of lawmakers. "I was following orders as a commanding officer."

What traits define a person who chooses to resist unreasonable orders?

The book suggests that such individuals often have a stronger sense of empathy. They are more likely to feel responsible for the harm that could result from following orders and are willing to take greater risks to prevent it.

In one experiment, participants were more likely to disobey violent commands when they were injected with oxytocin and when the frontal cortex — an area associated with empathy — was stimulated. Furthermore, the more authoritarian and hierarchical an organization was, the higher the rate of defiance among its members.

However, the neuroscientist cautions against labeling those who obey orders and commit violence as simply evil or monstrous. She argues that demonizing individuals in this way can overshadow the political and historical context that may have influenced their involvement in violence.

In order to break the cycle of violence through obedience, the author highlights the need to first understand the mechanisms of obedience and come up with an intervention plan to encourage empathy and moral courage structurally.

A protester holds a placard urging the punishment of impeached President Yoon Suk Yeol, former Defense Minister Kim Yong-hyun and high-ranking military officials, at the National Police Agency headquarters in central Seoul, Dec. 26. Yonhap